Engine Operations›Standpipe Operations
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1 · Chapter 6
“Of the many types of firefighting tactics that an Engine Company may face, stretching and advancing hose lines from the standpipe can be a taxing and complicated operation.”Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-1
Three critical tasks fall to the Engine Company at a standpipe fire: carry the hose, nozzles, fittings and tools to the outlet you have chosen; stretch and advance a line to control and extinguish; and supply or augment the system so there is volume at proper pressure. — p.6-1
A wet system holds water at all times — and you still pump it.
Supplied by municipal main, gravity tank, pressure tank, or a combination. Manual or automatic fire pumps often boost pressure on the upper floors of tall buildings. On a wet system, fire department pumpers must augment the system so flow needs are met at adequate pressures.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, pp.6-2, 6-16
A dry system has no water in it until you put it there. You are the water supply — the only one.
Dry systems “have no automatic source of supply and depend solely on fire department pumpers to provide the system demand.” Dry risers are charged when hose lines are connected to the fire department connection.
“In the case of dry standpipe systems, fire department pumpers provide the only water supply available for firefighting.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, pp.6-2, 6-3, 6-16
Class I — 2½″ outlets, fire department use only.
The one you are trained to work off.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-2 · NFPA 14 (1993 ed.) classes
Class II — 1½″ outlet with 1½″ hose, for occupant use.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-2
Class III — both. 2½″ and 1½″, or a 2½″ reduced to 1½″ with a removable reducer.
For fire department or occupant use. Usually 1½″ occupant-use hose is provided.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-3
“Incorporates a water supply for automatic sprinklers with a Class III standpipe system (in some cases the occupant hose connections are not required when automatic sprinklers are provided.)”
“Until the 1970s, many building codes required either separate Class I and Class II standpipes, or a Class III system. Many of the older buildings utilize Class II standpipe outlets (for occupant use) to be supplied by the building’s domestic water system, and permit dry standpipes to meet Class I requirements. The dry standpipe risers are charged with water when hose lines are connected to the fire department connection (FDC).”
“Since the 1970s, the trend has been to require automatic sprinkler systems in almost all new commercial buildings. Most new systems are installed as combined sprinkler/standpipe systems, and some older Class I or Class III standpipe systems have been converted to combined systems to supply water for retrofit automatic sprinkler systems.”
“Combined sprinkler/standpipe systems generally require a fire pump to increase the pressure coming in from the public water system, in order to deliver adequate pressure at the upper levels of the building. These pumps may be electrically driven or powered by internal combustion (generally diesel) engines. Some codes require a backup water supply system on the premises, in case the public water system is out of service due to an earthquake, or other disruption.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, pp.6-3–6-4
Know your buildings before the tones. Newer buildings feed everything off a single set of connections; older ones can have a different FDC for every stairwell, area or system.
“Therefore, it is important for firefighters to have information about the water supply and connections for each specific building. This information should be gathered during pre-fire planning.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-4
Standpipes turn up in multifamily residential buildings over three floors in height, and in commercial or residential low-rise and high-rise buildings. They are usually in enclosed stairwells, but can be in the public hallway or on the exterior of the building alongside fire escapes. — p.6-1
“Locations often equipped with standpipe systems:”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, pp.6-1, 6-4
Some buildings in your district were only ever built to give 65 psi at the top outlet. Know which ones.
Before 1993, 65 psi residual at the topmost outlet was all that was required, with the riser providing 500 gpm at that pressure and any additional risers 250 gpm each. A 100-foot 1¾″ hotel pack — using 10 feet of 3″ as a leader line — needs 110 psi to flow 150 gpm at a 75-psi nozzle pressure. That building will not give it to you.
This is the reason the manual puts 2½″ and a smooth bore in your hands. The present standard requires a minimum of 100 psi at the top outlet — enough for either 1¾″ or 2½″ packs — but those minimums assume a properly maintained, 100% dependable system, “a scenario we must realize does not exist in many buildings.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-4
“It is imperative that companies become familiar with their districts and know which high-rise buildings fall under this old standard, in order to be properly equipped with the right diameter hose line.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-4
Every Engine Company assigned to fire attack brings all four 2½″ hose bundles, the high-rise kit, and the forcible entry tools. How the load is split among the crew is the Company Officer’s call. — p.6-8
Four 50-foot lengths of 2½″, packed in a Denver load with straps. One bundle carries the high-rise nozzle pre-attached.
Four lengths is the printed tool assignment on both the 1st and 2nd due engine.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, pp.6-5, 6-11, 6-12
The high-rise nozzle is one assembly, not a choice. There is no tip menu.
A 2½″ ball-style shut-off with a built-in 2½″ → 1½″ reducer, into which the 1⅛″ smooth bore tip threads. Assembled, those components are the high-rise nozzle.
Second thing that shut-off buys you: kill the water, break the tip off, and add hose at the nozzle to extend the stretch.
NP 50 psi · 265 gpmEngine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-6 · flow per the OFD Hydraulic Manual, Solid Stream / Smooth Bore Tips
The gate valve is your pressure control — and your backup when the building’s valve fights you.
“The Gate Valve allows the firefighter located at the standpipe outlet to have better control over the discharge pressure. It also provides for redundancy if problems arise with the standpipe outlet valve or PRD/PRV.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-7
Gauge goes on the gate valve before the hose does.
The in-line pressure gauge attaches to the 2½″ outlet on the gate valve. Attach it first. It is what lets you dial in the right pressure for the amount of hose you actually stretched.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-6
The elbow kills the kink at the outlet.
It reduces bends and kinks in the hose attached to the standpipe outlet, and lets you make the connection inside a public hallway hose cabinet.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-6
The high-rise kit is a nylon bag — know what is in it without looking.
Minimum contents: gate valve · spanner wrenches · door wedges · pipe wrench · pressure gauge · 30-degree elbow · PRD/PRV adjustment tools.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-5
Minuteman on the high-rise shut-off — residential and hotels only, and only if the Company Officer says the fire allows it.
For residential occupancies and hotels the 1¾″ Minuteman bundle can be attached to the high-rise shut-off nozzle, for overhaul and if fire conditions allow.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-5
“This manual requires that 2 ½” hose and smooth-bore nozzles are to be used when operating off standpipes in both commercial and residential low-rise and high-rise buildings. The main reason for this is the limited pressure available in wet standpipe systems built prior to 1993 (65psi) and the extinguishing capability of 2 ½” hose.”
“The 1 ¾” minuetman bundle may be attached to the 2 1/2" shutoff in certain situations when fighting fires in residential buildings. The decision to use the minuetman bundle should be made only when the Company Officer feels the fire conditions (no fire in the public hallway); stairwell size and configuration, and mobility needed will quickly extinguish a fire contained to one unit.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-8
In a low-rise you walk. Over six stories you may ride — with an Elevator Operator, and you get off two floors below the fire floor.
“In low-rise buildings, elevators should not be used by fire attack crews necessitating that hose and other equipment be carried up the stairs. Crews may use the elevators in buildings over six stories, provided that an Elevator Operator is in place and the crews exit the elevator a minimum of two floors below the fire floor.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-8
Three things decide the stretch: what floor and occupancy the fire is in, how far it is from the nearest outlet, and whether you have the people — two companies — to get the first line in service promptly.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-8
“In order to assure efficient and timely stretching of the fire attack line in multiple story buildings, the services of the first two engine companies should be utilized. The pairing of engine companies will in most cases result in a more rapid and efficient hoseline stretch.”
The same page lists the standpipe stretch with high-rise bundles alongside the well-hole stretch, the utility rope stretch via the exterior, and the bundle drop stretch as the ways to minimize the number of lengths required in a multiple-floor occupancy.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.4-9
Take the outlet in the stairway closest to the fire. Shortest stretch wins.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-8
Every primary hookup is made on the floor below the fire. No exceptions.
The first officer to reach the fire floor reports the location of the fire and the conditions in the public hallway.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-8
Second and third lines: expect to hook up two floors below, or in a more distant stairway — so carry extra lengths.
“Engine Companies responsible for the second and third lines should anticipate this fact and should add additional lengths of hose to their stretch.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-9
“Under no circumstances should a hookup be made to a hose outlet that does not afford the fire attack Engine Company protection from heat and smoke, such as in a corridor or hallway.” Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-9
“After the hookup point is chosen, four important operations must be performed at the hose outlet valve before the hose can be attached.” — p.6-9
Confirm the outlet valve is closed before you pull the cap.
On a dry system, outlet valves may be sitting open on other floors. Assign firefighters to go shut them — every open outlet robs pressure from your line.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-9
Remove the pressure-regulating device — or drive it to fully open.
Some PRDs come off. Others are permanently affixed and must be adjusted to the fully open position; the method varies by manufacturer, and the adjustment tools are in the high-rise kit. They show up in buildings only six or eight stories tall.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-9
“Remove or adjust the pressure-regulating device if present. PRDs routinely are installed on standpipe outlets to reduce, restrict, or otherwise control pressures. It is possible to find PRD’s in buildings that are only six or eight stories in height. Some types of PRD’s can be removed, but others are permanently affixed and cannot be removed--at least not in any reasonable amount of time. Non-removable PRD’s must be adjusted to the fully open position. The method by which this is accomplished varies by manufacturer. It is important to recognize that special tools and training may be required to adjust these devices. Various adjustment tools can are located in the high-rise kit. A third type of PRD exists, and it is the most dangerous. It cannot be removed and is not field-adjustable. The presence of permanently affixed, nonadjustable PRD’s should be noted during pre-fire planning inspections, and this information must be disseminated to all affected fire companies.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-9
Flush the outlet. Hard. Nothing in NFPA 14 puts a screen or strainer in that riser.
Garbage and debris accumulate in the riser and piping and will clog your nozzle or wreck the stream of the first line. Flushing also proves the outlet valve works and will take a pressure adjustment.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-9
Gate valve on, in-line gauge on, then the hose. Now you can adjust pressure at the outlet.
“Pressure adjustments then are made by monitoring the in-line gauge and turning the control wheel at the outlet with the nozzle fully open and flowing.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-10
Commercial: always in the stairway. Residential: you may stretch dry to the apartment door — if the fire lets you.
A bedroom or kitchen fire in a residential building may allow a dry stretch to the door. A more developed fire, wind as a factor, or an open apartment door making the public hallway untenable, and the stairway is the only safe option.
“If any doubt exists, charge the line in the stairway.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-10
SAFETY
You will not fix it at the outlet with a tool. The only defence is knowing it is there before the fire: “The presence of permanently affixed, nonadjustable PRD’s should be noted during pre-fire planning inspections, and this information must be disseminated to all affected fire companies.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-9SAFETY
“Engine companies should never attempt to use the unlined, linen hose provided with standpipe systems. It often is old and improperly maintained and may fail under fire department operating pressures.”
The manual gives exactly one exception: a ladder or rescue company operating remotely from an engine company while performing searches, where “stretching and operating occupant-use hose would be justified in an attempt to save civilian and firefighter lives.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-3Two families of device get installed on standpipe outlets, and they behave differently the moment you stop flowing water. — p.6-13
Flow restricting device — squeezes the opening. It does not touch static pressure.
It controls discharge pressure by restricting flow through a reduced opening sized to a specific pressure and discharge rate; the common one is an orifice plate. Because it leaves static pressure alone, you get higher pressures at lower flow rates. Some jurisdictions require them to be adjustable or removable by the fire department.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-13
Pressure reducing valve — holds a set pressure downstream at every flow rate, flowing or static.
Set to deliver a specific pressure that will not be exceeded under any flow condition. It must be set for that specific condition and is usually not adjustable without special tools. They are also installed between the standpipe risers and the automatic sprinklers on individual floors, not only on hose outlets.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-13
NFPA 14 outlet pressure limits
RECONSTRUCTED
Table scrolls sideways →
| Limit | Pre-1993 | Since 1993 |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum at the highest outlet | 65 psi residual | 100 psi flow pressure |
| Flow the primary riser had to provide | 500 gpm | — |
| Any additional riser | 250 gpm each | — |
| Maximum pressure at an outlet, flowing | 100 psi | — |
| Maximum static at any outlet | 175 psi | 175 psi |
| Applies to | 1½″ and 2½″ alike | outlets larger than 1½″ |
The manual points to a “Table 1” and a “Table 2” that were never printed in it. The figures above are reconstructed from the body text of Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-14, and are labelled as such. The missing tables are on the committee list.
The pre-1993 number was built around the nozzle you carry: 65 psi minus 15 psi friction loss per 100 ft of 2½″ leaves the 50 psi a 1⅛″ smooth bore needs.
That is the manual’s own arithmetic for why the old standard was set at 65 psi at 500 gpm at the highest outlet — it assumed 2½″ hose with a 1⅛″ tip.
Which is exactly why your nozzle still works in those buildings: “Nozzles that are designed to operate at lower pressures (50 psi) will be particularly useful when responding to buildings that have standpipe systems that were designed to meet pre-1993 standards.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-14
“The minimum and maximum pressure limitations were revised in 1993, after several reports of fires where crews had difficulty operating effective hose streams due to inadequate pressures. A large number of fire department were found to be using 1 3/4” or 2” attack hose with combination fog nozzles, especially automatic nozzles, which require at least 100 psi at the nozzle to operate properly. As a result, in 1993 the pressure limit for all outlets greater than 1 1/2 inches was increased to 100 psi minimum flow pressure, and 175 psi maximum static pressure.”
“The standard also specified that pressure reducing devices must be installed on 1 1/2 inch outlets that would exceed 100 psi flow pressure at the required flow rate. Pressure reducing valves, which control water under flowing and static conditions, must be installed on all outlets that exceed 175 psi static pressure.”
“The higher pressures that are required today for 2 1/2 inch and larger outlets are intended to provide sufficient pressures for 2 1/2” hose lines to be operated in excess of one hundred feet, connected to outlets several floor below, and with nozzle pressures up to 100 psi.”
On the 1½″ outlets: “The 1 1/2 inch valves were limited to 100 psi residual pressure because these lines are usually considered occupant attack lines. Pressures exceeding 100 psi may overwhelm occupant users.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-14
This is why PRVs exist — and why a mis-set one is a real problem.
In a 275-foot building it takes 234 psi at the base of the riser to overcome elevation and still make the required 100 psi at the top outlet. At that pressure, a 2½″ line with a 1½″ tip would produce a nozzle reaction force of around 500 pounds. The PRV is there so the pressure at the outlet you open near the base of that riser is inside a safe working range.
“Some fire departments have encountered problems where the PRV’s were not properly set for the required discharge pressure. In these cases, firefighters faced either inadequate or excessive hoseline pressures.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-15
“In tall buildings, standpipe systems which utilize flow restricting devices were limited to approximately 20 stories per zone, to stay within the limit of 175 psi maximum static pressure. Each 20-story zone required its own fire pump(s) and fire department connection (FDC).”
“Today, standpipe zone heights are no longer restricted if PRV’s are used. PRV’s simplify the design and installation of sprinkler and standpipe systems by allowing their installation without a height limitation.”
“The NFPA standard now requires a test/drain riser to be installed adjacent to the standpipe risers that are equipped with PRV’s so that flow and discharge pressure can be set and checked during regular inspections.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-15
Tools: high-rise bag · 4 lengths of 2½″ in a high-rise bundle · irons · keys.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-11
Tools: high-rise bag · 4 lengths of 2½″ in a high-rise bundle · 4 air bottles · irons.
Then: all equipment from this company is staged outside the stairwell two floors below the fire, and the company goes to help the first engine advance the first line.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-12
Occupancy drives the load before you ever arrive.
“Those occupancies that contain standpipe systems will require the Nozzle Firefighter to bring hose bundles and other tools based on the Engine Company Officer’s size up and tactics.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.1-12
“The first critical task facing the 2nd due Engine Companies arriving at a fire in a standpipe-equipped building is to establish a water supply by pumping into the FDC connections.” — p.6-16
3″ hose supplies every standpipe system. Wet or dry, commercial or residential — it is not a judgement call.
“3” hose should be used to supply all standpipe systems.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-16
“It is important to provide an independent and a redundant water supply by using two engine companies for each Siamese connection.” Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-16
2nd due takes the FDC: both 3″ lines into the Siamese, and connect to the nearest hydrant.
Both of your 3″ lines go into the one Siamese. That is the whole job on that connection — you are not sharing it with another engine.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-16
3rd due relay pumps into you from the next nearest hydrant. That is where the redundancy comes from.
The two engine companies on that Siamese are in series, not both on the FDC. You are on the connection; the third engine is behind you on the next hydrant, pushing into your intake. If your pump fails, the water is already staged behind it.
If the building has more FDC connections, the next arriving engines repeat the pattern. The larger the building, the more likely there are multiple FDCs — often on different street fronts.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-16
“This ensures that firefighters advancing hoselines will have an uninterrupted supply of water should a pumper suffer a mechanical failure or the FDC supplies only a single stairwell riser. This is common with dry standpipe systems.”
“The second Engine Company arriving on the first alarm should take a position at the appropriate FDC standpipe connection and supply two 3” lines into the FDC Siamese and connect to the nearest hydrant. The third arriving Engine Company should relay pump to the second engine company from the next nearest hydrant. This procedure should be continued by the next arriving engine companies if additional FDC connections to the building are available. The larger the building, the more likely multiple FDC connections will be present, often on different street fronts.”
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-16
What you are pumping to — the four pieces
Table scrolls sideways →
| Piece | Value | Where it comes from |
|---|---|---|
| Nozzle pressure | 50 psi | Smooth bore hand-line |
| Friction loss, 2½″ at 265 gpm | 16 psi / 100 ft | Friction Loss Standard per 100′ (field) |
| Standpipe appliance | 25 psi | Regardless of flow |
| Elevation | 5 psi / floor − 1st | Structural elevation loss |
| Friction loss, 3″ at 300 gpm | 9 psi / 100 ft | Your supply lines into the FDC |
OFD Hydraulic Manual — Friction Loss Standard per 100′; Elevation Loss, field hydraulic calculation; Appliance Loss, Large Appliances; Nozzle Pressure.
Elevation is counted to the floor the nozzle is on, minus the first floor. 5 psi a floor.
You hook up one floor below the fire, but the nozzle goes up to the fire floor — count to the nozzle. Fire on 8: (8 − 1) × 5 = 35 psi of elevation, not 30.
On a standpipe with a known pressure reducing valve, elevation is taken on the total height of the standpipe instead.
OFD Hydraulic Manual, Elevation Loss — field hydraulic calculation; Appliance Loss — Standpipe
The standpipe takes its own 25 psi — regardless of flow. It never scales down because you flowed less.
OFD Hydraulic Manual, Appliance Loss — Large Appliances, Standpipe
Full 200-ft bundle off the outlet on floor 7, high-rise nozzle on floor 8, 1⅛″ tip flowing 265 gpm.
Then add the friction loss in your own 3″ supply lines from the pump to the FDC, at the flow each line is actually carrying. Arithmetic on the published values in the table above; no figure here is invented.
UNRESOLVED — NEEDS A DECISION
On a standpipe or mid-rise building the two documents agree: the 2nd due takes it. They part company on commercial, and on the trigger.
“The second Engine Company arriving on the first alarm should take a position at the appropriate FDC standpipe connection and supply two 3” lines into the FDC Siamese and connect to the nearest hydrant.” Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, p.6-16
“Position on FDC. Pump FDC upon ‘working fire’. Stretch back-up line to location of 1st Engine Company.” OFD Quick Reference Guide, May 2024 — Commercial column, 3rd Engine Company Functions
“Establish water supply, Pump standpipe if 1st Engine determines standpipe operations.” OFD Quick Reference Guide, May 2024 — Mid Rise Structures 4 Floors and Above, 2nd Engine
The open questions: (1) commercial FDC — 2nd due or 3rd due? (2) Is the real difference sprinkler FDC vs standpipe FDC? If the Quick Reference Guide’s commercial line means the sprinkler connection and Chapter 6 means the standpipe connection, there is no conflict at all — but the pump pressures differ, so it is worth saying on the page. (3) Does the FDC wait for a “working fire”? Chapter 6 makes the connection and begins pumping as the 2nd due’s first critical task, with no such condition.
Decider: a chief and a captain. Until then, work the chapter: on a standpipe building the FDC is the 2nd due’s, and the 3rd due relays into it.
Engine Company Operations 2023 V-1, Chapter 6 — Standpipe Operations, pp.6-1–6-16, in full; plus p.1-12 (Nozzle Firefighter, responding) and p.4-9 (Stretching and Operating the Hoseline — other tactical considerations). Hydraulic figures from the OFD Hydraulic Manual. The commercial FDC question also quotes the OFD Quick Reference Guide, May 2024. Page numbers are chapter-relative, as printed in the manual’s own footers.
Not on this page for lack of a source: the manual’s “Table 1” and “Table 2” were never printed — the pressure limits above are reconstructed from the body text and labelled. Chapter 6 gives no pump discharge pressure for an FDC and no maximum inlet pressure, so none is stated here.